By the late fifteenth century the Medici family had become great supporters of Calcio and promoted the game among the nobility. It was during this time that football costume came into use (Manley, 1992). By the 16th century Giovanni Bardi (1580) had published the rules of an Italian game now called giuoco del calcio fiorentino. Both teams consisted of twenty-seven players and the format of the game was similar to other forms found in England.

Oliver Cromwell whilst a student at Cambridge University in 1600 was an acknowledged football player and the game was played in all the better schools and universities. During the Industrial Revolution the elementary game of football lost popularity because workers had to work long hours. Instead it thrived in public schools and Harrow was thought to be the first to introduce the idea of an eleven-aside game. In Winchester they played without goal posts and instead kicked the ball over the line. Eton College in the nineteenth century produced the earliest known set of rules for football (1815). Public schools in both UK and US played similar types of ball games. The games looked nothing like the football codes of today and were played to individual sets of rules, which reflected the institution. This made it difficult to find fixtures with outer teams. By the middle of the nineteenth century all major English public schools had developed their own rules and a meeting was held in Trinity College, Cambridge to standardise them. Hands were outlawed for carrying the ball but players could use them to stop the ball in mid flight. Goals were scored by kicking the ball between two flag posts and under a piece of string stretched between them. It was deemed a foul play to grab, trip or kick an opponent. When Sheffield accepted the Cambridge Rules in 1855, the first football club was founded in England. Later in 1863, fourteen basic laws of the game were identified when the Football Association (London) was formed. A serious debate broke out concerning the merits of players being allowed to hold opponents and hack them at the same time. The meeting broke up in disagreement. This split forged the foundation for Rugby Union. Ironically the eight rules of the early Association resemble today's rules which govern rugby union. Players then could handle the ball and hitting the ball at any height provided it fell between the goal posts constituted a goal. A try ie. touching the ball behind the opponents goal entitled the player to convert. By 1891 these rules were increased to 17, including the introduction of the penalty kick. In 1937/38 Stanley Rous, Secretary of the Football Association, redrafted the rules into their modern form. These were reviewed in 1997. The origins of the name soccer are thought to have came from an Oxford footballer by the name of Charles Wreford Brown (1863). He borrowed 'socc' from Association and added 'er' to give the term "socc'er'". Such lexiconic bastardisation was common at the time and gave counter speak to the other football code rugby or "rugger". By ironic coincidence the Latin word for slipper is soccus and in Antiquity the soccus was worn by entertainers, women and effeminate young, men. It described a simple slipper or calceoli and laterally became a sock that fitted loosely so they could be removed quickly. Soccus were commonly dyed yellow from the seed of the pomegranate. Fashion dictates have meant changes to the original soccer boot means we now have a soccer slipper which if worn by the entertainers in bright colours is still to this day likely to cause suspicion in the faithful (ie. fans) as to the sexual orientation of the wearer. Black boots remain overal popular among today's players.

The Factory Act 1847 prohibited the employment of women and young people on Saturday afternoons. What the law governed for women and children gradually became applied to the men also. Soon there arose an enormous public demand to be amused on Saturday afternoons. The popularity of soccer among working class men grew with the pursuit of leisure. One of the main attractions of soccer to the youth of the time was the absence of special clothing. The game could be played in any clothes and shoes. According to James Laver (1950, cited in Maple), sporting garments originated in ordinary masculine wear. Once established as the working class pastime British colonists took their rough and tumble game around the world. Railway workers, clerks and business owners were responsible for the spread of the game to Europe, South America and the Commonwealth (Oliver, 1995). Although football remained a sport much more associated with the British merchant class than its ruling aristocracy did. It coincided with the British Empire's commitment to Civilising Mission and Muscular Christianity. Victorians were dedicated to spread Christianity throughout the Commonwealth and soccer provided an ideal medium for healthy pastimes for people of India, Africa and Asia. Playing the game also meant to the British an opportunity of celebrating the British culture left so far behind. Along with the game came the uniform although the majority of indigenous peoples played the game barefoot. Even when later boots were available the barefoot had already become established. In the 1850s, the Irish introduced Gaelic football to Melbourne, Australia. Local cricketers were looking to exercise off-season and when the game was combined with an indigenous Aboriginal game and took on a distinct Australian nature. This became Australian Rules Football. In the US a meeting at Princeton, in 1867 proved seminal for US College Football. They adopted the English rugby code but insisted on soccer's eleven asides. Later these rules were refined and by 1880, US College Football was launched. The Rugby Union devised a 15 a side amateur game played with an oval ball. In 1922 a dispute over players arose in the north of England and the rugby code split to form Rugby League with thirteen a side.

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Popularity in organised sports followed changes to conditions of employment condition in the UK. The working class had more recreation time and the search for leisurable pastimes was thought to account for the meteoric rise in organised sport. In 1862, Notts County became the first professional team. The oldest soccer club in the world started by an impromptu kick abouts by a group of young men of the professional class. In 1867 Queens Park became the first Scottish Club. At first the Scots' game was associated with delicate ball control and short passing known as the combination game. The English preferred individual players who could dribble passed their opposition. As the early years passed regional variations began to arise and some players perfected the screw shot or bending the ball in flight. These strategies necessitated precise control of the ball the combination of physical ability and boot became critical if the ball was to be mastered. It took more than a decade after the rules of the game were formulated for the artisan classes to become interested in playing association football. Rugby was by far the more popular game with the cloth cap fraternity but gradually this was to change. The phenomenon of the newly perfected electrical illumination also caught the imagination and football promoters help floodlight matches. The standard of play improved with the establishment of the English Football League (1888). Organised competition with spectators meant a greater emphasis on entertainment and the game began to speed up. The need to free up movement in the players meant restrictive clothing needed to be modified or go. Costumes became gradually lighter in weight and the cumbersome leg pads or shinguards were reduced in size and tucked inside the socks. The only exception to this was boots, which became more robust and heavier. At first the Football Association was against professionalism but eventually 1885 it had to accept the inevitable and sanction professionalism. Transfer of professional players meant a marriage of football styles, which was to lead to formation play, which engaged the crowds.

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During the American Civil War (1861-1865), a form of soccer was adopted by both sides to relax the combatants (Madden, 2000). The games were played with audible jocularity by the men and encouraged by commanders because they rehearsed the skills of combat. In Germany, prior to the First World War, the English game was despised because of its origins as well as the attire was considered indecent. In South America, the building of the railways brought British workman who played the game. This English influence was reflected in the names Argentina's two most famous clubs, River Plate and Newell's Old Boys. Once established touring English Football sides like Southampton, Nottingham Forest and Swindon Town were early visitors to Argentina (Liniker & Hey, 1998). Later when mass emigration from Italy occurred the continental style of the game became established. Soccer in Brazil had modest start when Brazilian born Englishman, Charles Miller went to play for Southampton, on his return he brought shirts, balls and boots to start thee first teams and by 1898, several small football clubs had been founded. The game was associated with the upper middle classes and such a gentleman's game it was common place when a team were awarded a penalty, player would pass the ball to the opposition to avoid an indirect accusation of ungentlemanly conduct being aimed at the player who had conceded the kick. (Liniker & Hey, 1998). A team of former Oxford and Cambridge university graduates visited Brazil in 1910 they made such an impact a Sao Paulo club adopted the same name. By 1914 the game was endemic and two years later the South American Championship was established. In India the game came with the troops but as Muscular Christianity spread more Indians were encouraged to play the game and eventually an Indian team beat the East Yorkshire Regimental Team (2-1). The Indian players played barefooted. Football in Eastern Europe was directly related to the spread of Communism after the Second World War The Hungarian Football Association was founded in 1901 (Scottish exile Jimmy Hogan expanded their football base in the years immediately after the First World War). Czechoslovakian football started in the late 19th century helped by Scotsman John Dick Celtic played in Prague in 1906.

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The first international game was between Scotland v England (1872). Inclement weather caused the first fixture to be cancelled but a rescheduled game took place on November 30th 1872. The meeting of the Auld Enemy took place at the West of Scotland, Cricket Ground in Patrick, Glasgow. Newspaper reports described the players wearing heavy boots with thick woollen socks. Contemporary adverts indicate the boots were made from heavy calf leather and worn above the ankle similar to engineer's boots. Metal studs on the sole gave greater traction but the design patterns were serendipitous. The boot's toecaps were reinforced and fluted in shape. Two years later, shin guards were worn for the first time and these were adapted from cricket. The pads were worn against the lower leg and strapped to the top of the stockings but left to hang outside. Movement was severely restricted but the game then was played in a more leisurely manner. Physical restriction prevented athleticism in the manner common to the modern game. Official international matches started on the continent at the beginning of the twentieth century. The Federation Internationale de Football Association (FIFA) was founded in 1904 and the first tournament took place in London as part of the 1908 Olympics. The new sport was regarded somewhat suspiciously and considered, by many, as an exhibition rather than competition. Between 1909 and 1913 many non-European countries joined forces with FIFA. Despite disruption caused by the First World War, FIFA continued to promote international soccer competitions through the Olympic movement until 1930 when the first World Cup was help in Montevideo, Uruguay. The 1932 World Cup final between Italy and Czechoslovakia was broadcast on the radio for the first time. This brought millions of armchair fans to the international game.

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At first the World's championship of football was the Olympics and the winners were considered the World Champions. After the First World War more and more players turned professional, which meant the better teams, could not complete. Many countries fielded professionals under the guise of being amateurs, which caused much concern at the time. At first soccer was viewed as a demonstration sport but later accepted as part of the official Olympics. A summary of the men's Olympic Championship winners is given below.

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With increasing acceptance of professional soccer around the globe the Olympics became less attractive as the premier soccer event and according to Oliver (1995), when Jules Rimer, the President of FIFA moved a motion FIFE organise a quadrennial championship, the World Cup was established. French sculptor, Albert Lafleur, designed the first trophy for the World Champions which was presented to Uruguay in 1930. The first goal to be scored in the championship was netted by Lucien Laurent of France. New atleticism became an estabished norm in the game as the styles of international soccer blended. Spectators were held spellbound with the antics of the skilled athletes like Leonidas da Silva, The Black Diamond who demonstrated, for the first time, the eye catching overhead bicycle kick in the 1938 World Cup. A summary of World Cup winners including the Golden Boot Award is given below. The Golden Boot is a coveted award given to the leading goal scorer(s) of each championship.

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One plausable explanation why soccer in the northern hemisphere became a winter sport was described by Manley (1992). The Medieval custom was to kill live stock in November in preparation for winter sustenance. This gave an excess of pig's bladders. Alexander Barclay described this in 1508:

They get the bladder and blowe it great and then
With many beans or peasons put within
It ratleth, soundeth, and sineth cleare and fayre
With foot and with hande the bladder for to smite
If it falls to the grounde they lifte it up agayne
The sturdy plowmen, lustie, stronge and bolde.

FIFA Law 2 - The Ball
"The ball shall be spherical; the outer casing shall be of leather or other approved materials. No material shall be used in its construction which might prove dangerous to the players. The circumference of the ball shall not be more than 28 inches and not less than 27 inches (70-68 cm) . The weight of the ball at the start of the game shall not be more than 16 ounces nor less than 14 ounces (410 -450 gms). The pressure shall be equal to 0.6 - 1.1 atmosphere (600 - 1100 gr/cm²) at sea level. The ball shall not be changed during the game unless authorized by the referee.

According to Brown (2002) the first official FIFA ball was introduced at the 1970 Mexico World Cup, and all Official World Cup Balls since then have been made by Adidas. Since 1970 there have been nine official balls, all slightly different from their predecessor.

Fevernova ^TM, Korea Japan, 2002

Adidas have produced a competition ball, which is now three millimetres thick (11 layers including a foam layer made up of tiny gas filled balloons which have elastic properties), and constructed from a syntactic foam based on an abrasion resistant polyurethane made by Bayer called Impranil® polyurethane. The outer cover of the ball consists of a combination of special synthetic polystyrenes (polyurethane) and natural rubber. Cleverly embedded within the layers are equal sized, highly elastic, exceptionally resistant gas-filled microcells. tightly woven in a network of knitted, synthetic Raschel fabric. The sponge has high modulus of compression, with a good elastic memory. These gives the Fevernova TM improved rebound characteristics, which convert foot strike into ball acceleration.. The outer layer of the ball is made of a particularly so that the ball can withstand exceptionally tough treatment. All of this combines to give the ball greater durability. Now the surface of the new ball converts applied energy evenly at every point thus damping properties to the kicker. Technically at the feet of experts this might, as the manufacturers claim, give a more calculable, flight path. The adidas Fevernova ^TM is made to meet the lower end of FIFA regulations governing circumference and the upper limit of weight , a smaller and heavier sphere has a more accurate trajectory. (Murphy, 2002)

The mesh layer provides strength that limits deformation when the ball is kicked and helps the ball remain spherical in flight. Distortion of the round shape leads to an uneven airflow around the ball making it veer off course. The ball can travel at speeds of 130km/h (81 mph). The ability of players to swerve the ball will not effect as this is done by imparting spin. The foot is the key to transferring the foot's force . The presence of gas filled surface means the applied force is transferred to the ball. The bubbles allow the ability to kick the ball without too much resistance and the ball does not absorb the energy which converts to acceleration. In any event the plastic covered ball will spin and challenge many competent goalkeepers, particularly in wet and humid conditions. The new, FIFA World Cup 2002 ball, the Fevernova TM weights 435g,

"a ridiculous kiddie's bouncing ball " Gianluigi Buffon Goal Keeper, Italy

Not without controversy, the new, Official Ball appears to exhibit the same properties as plastic inflatable balls have had. These have long since been used by amateurs but to date have not been accepted in professional play. Whether evolution of the football is the quest for more spectacular play (and goals), or reduction in injuries related to kicking and heading the ball, is not clear. However the evolution of the soccer ball has come a long way from pig's bladders covered with cow hide.

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As the game developed then the football boot emerged as an essential part of the sport. Contemporary pictures of amateur teams (circa 1870) display a mixed bunch of rugged workboots. Not until the last decade of the century do teams appear to wear the same boots. Not surprisingly there were no regulation governing boots other than they must no wear anything that may endanger their opponents.

Rule 13#: No player shall be allowed to wear projecting nails, iron plates, or gutta percha on the soles or heels of his boots.

Newspaper reports of early games indicated the weather in the winter of 1870/71 was severe and extreme. Heavy rain accompanied by high winds with severe frosts and snow did not deter the new game from being played. Flooding frequently arose followed by an unusual hot summer which pioneering players took in their stride. Clothing was restrictive and worn for protection from the elements as much as decency. Hence early British football was very slow and not yet a spectators' spectacle. Neither were the general public was not actively encouraged to attend as the game was considered more for participants. Despite this the popularity of the game grew and clubs began to spring up across the UK. Early photographs are testament to the availability of stout footwear (Denvir, 1979). Players wore long laced boots, similar to engineer's boots but with a strengthened toecap in iron hard leather. In 1880 boots began to incorporate a strap, narrow on the inside of the foot, which crossed over the bottom two or three rows of eyelet's, winding to the outside of the foot. This gave greater protection to the toes as players used the dorsum of the foot to kick. Today, players use the side of their foot to strike the ball, then the toe was used to catch the ball and give it lift. To increase ground grip the soles incorporated metal tacks but Rule 13 prevented these in official matches. They were replaced form 1890 with new plugs made from layers of leather, they idea came form hockey boots. Studs (sometimes referred to as cleats) were positioned to avoid isolated pressure points and unnecessary irritation of the foot. In the area of the hindfoot they were located towards the outside of the sole to avoid buckling. The common formation was six studs, two distal and proximal to the metatarsal heads and two on the posterior aspect of the heel. By 1900 the soccer boot was a recognisable entity and not just modified footwear adopted from other sports. The Shurekik Boota was made from russet calf with fluted toecap and sold in 1901 for a cost 8/6d ($1.26A). To complete leg protection shin guards cost between 1/6d (22c Aus) and 2/11d (45c Aus); and football hose varied between 1/11d (30c Aus) and 4/11d (75c Aus). Professional players received 2/6 (37c. Aus) per game and some were paid special bonuses in addition depending on their skill. The sum varied according to the size of the crowd but even the best players seldom got bonuses was over 2/11 (45c Aus). Boots cost three times that amount. According to Morris, the 'baggy shorts and heavy boots" style remained the dominant costume theme, right up to the Second World War. Most authorities agree changes to football boots took place after the war when there was a dramatic increase in international fixtures. This was made possible by improved air travel and transcontinental travel brought soccer players from the colder climes of Europe into contact with their counter parts in the Mediterranean and South America. Warmer climates meant players wore less and had flexible boots more suited to the climate. The Latin game was played faster and provided opportunity for athleticism rarely seen in the traditional European game. Radio broadcasts then televised sport meant more spectators could appreciate the novel Latin styles and appreciation of their skills caused a revolution in play and clothing. Boots became sports shoes allowing players to become athletes capable of leaps and volleys never before seen. The complete focus for design of the soccer boot was aimed at kicking and controlling the ball on the ground. (Lees & Nola,1998). Some might argue this has been at the expense of preventing injury. As the ankle boot lowered to become a soccer shoe alternative methods of providing ankle stability were necessary (Lees and Nolan, 1998). Later with the introduction of artificial playing surfaces the need for long studs became redundant. Deep penetration was neither good for the surface nor advantageous to the players, with many poor performances and injuries reported. At the same time the popularity of indoor soccer necessitated a change in boot design. The new challenges meant boot designers needed to be cognisant of giving the player greatest stability as their leg, anchored to the floor as well as combining this with the need to cope with the rigours of sliding on the floor. The new soccer shoe had bristle (or cleat) soles and gradually these have been incorporated into the traditional soccer boot design. Marketing rhetoric may infer a revolution in recent years but the trend has been a steady evolution in design and materials as manufacturers have sought to improve safety and performance. Improvements in the last decade have covered a broad range of design changes from the shape of the shoe to new lacing systems (Martin, 1997). As women¹s soccer gains greater popularity, companies like Adidas now carry different soccer shoes, developed on the shape and function of the female foot. To improve comfort, midsole cushioning now incorporates viscoelastic polymers. These are light in weight extremely resilient and hardwearing materials which incorporate fluids and gas within a solid mass. Not of this world these synthetics have come from the aerospace industry. These in turn displaced the revolutionary polyurethane which were originally used instead of natural rubber foams and leather. Changes from split sole shoe design have given greater support through the midfoot without loosing the need for shoe flexibility in accerlerated movements. Changes in lacing and eyelet mechanisms make the hitting surfaces flatter against the foot. This has two benefits i.e. pressure is distributed across the top of the foot and the flatter surface helps the player control the ball. Side eyelet fixation is another design innovation considered to contribute to the above. Better grip is affected by the inclusion of neoprene sleeves around the throat of the boot. A summary of the historic milestones is given in the table, below.

A Summary of the Historical Developments 1830 1830 Football was played in all the major English public schools. Boots were made by local bootmakers to suit the players'feet. These extended above the ankle, to support and give limited protection. Early forms of the game were ill defined and rough physical contact, including hard tackles, was encouraged. The boot was tightly laced with long laces, which wrapped around the ankle and often across the ball of the foot. To increase ground traction; boots incorporated studs (usually in the ratio of 4:2) 1896 1896 By now Association Rules were established and the once popular game of football with the Upper Class had become the pre-occupation of the working classes. Turn of the century, English Internationalists is seen sporting Football Boots of similar design to those above. 1909 1909 As the English game gained popularity and spread across the World. Acceptance of team outfits became part of the organised game. Adjustments to climatic conditions however necessitated minor modifications. Rule 13 meant dangerous metal studs could no longer be worn and players sported leather cleats instead. 1912 1912 Depicted here is a successful West Australian team (circa 1912), sporting the latest fashions in soccer kit. The outfits ore more streamline than the previous decade, which may indicate a faster game, but players still are wearing standard soccer boots (circa 1900). 1922 1922 Players were now able to wear screw in studs, principally through the innovation of Adi Dassler (co-founder of Adidas). This allowed them to select studs appropriate to the weather conditions. Whilst there was some variation in the arrangement of stud patterns on the sole of the boot, most professionals preferred the 4:2 or 4:3 ratio. 1937 1937 English and Continental styles of soccer had developed to such a degree as to have distinctive qualities which supporters were eager to see incorporated with their domestic games. Improved travel had extended competitions to incorporate international fixtures, which meant crowds were entertained by more athletic moves such as the overhead kick. Players were keen emulate these thrills as ball control became the major focus. Boots were worn very tight to the foot to allow the player to feel greater control of the ball. 1954 1954 Although the soccer boot was still worn above the ankle and tightly bound to the foot by laces, it was recognised the pattern of studs could cause injury. In 1951, new regulations were enforced, reducing the length of stud players could wear. Gradually there was incorporation of synthetic materials used to replace natural leathers and moulded stud surfaces were beginning to become available. In 1954 the winners of the FIFA World Cup in Switzerland was West Germany and they were sporting the new adidas soccer boots with screw in studs. By 1958 at the FIFA World Cup, Sweden, the majority of players wore adidas boots. 1966 1966 By now players had accepted the lower soccer shoe in preference to the traditional soccer boot. Boots were moderately lighter in weight, which may have given some players an advantage but the main reason for the change was the game was less physical and the rules of play now protected them from undue roughness. Improved soccer balls also meant players needed the freedom to control the faster ball. Incorpration of synthetics gave durability and strength both essential to a faster running game. Improved elasticised vigours allowed external ankle support, which had previously been afforded by the higher boot. 75% of the players at the 1966 FIFA World Cup in England wore adidas boots. 1970 1970 Greater glittering prizes meant more focused attempts to maximise performances. Soccer shoe manufacturers began incorporating greater efforts at research and development keen to ustilise new technologies and materials to capitalise profit. Endorsement and sponsorships of clubs and players became established at this time. The main focus was to produce attractive fashionable boots often incorporating novelties, which appeared to ignore the risk of injury to the player. 1988 1988 Soccer boots and football paraphernalia were now big business. Soccer shoes encapsulated all the conventional wisdom of making sport shoes into a robust slipper. Yet the number of injuries to players increased causing major concerns to all and considerable interest within the scientific community to analyse the biomechanics of the player and boots. 2000 2000 New cleat systems were devised to help distribute pressure across the boot. Incorporation of new polymer materials further strengthened the sports shoe as well as providing lightwieght footwear. New upper surfaces were developed to assist in ball control. All these now make up the modern soccer slipper. Many professional players still prefer the soccer shoe with traditonal stud arrangement which provide no more protection to the player than the boots of yesteryear. Changes to boot dsign are not forged by professional players but instead appear to be in response to demand from parents keen to reduce the number of injuries associated with the modern game.

The ability to play on different surfaces was recognised early on and hence the sole of the boot needed to offer resistance or ground traction. At first the metal tacks on engineer's boots were used, but Rule 13 meant greater care needed to be taken. Eventually leather cleats (or studs) replaced these. By the twenties Adi Dassler had developed replaceable studs which firmly established his credentials as soccer boot specialist in Germany. The length of studs was goverend for in 1951 and with the availability of new polymers natural materials were replaced by synthetics. The idea for moulded studs had been tried on hockey boots and when they were transferred to soccer boots a new revolution took place. Today plugs and cleats of variable length are used. Soccer boots should afford confident contact with playing surfaces as well as adapt optimally to all types of surfaces and weather conditions. On hard surfaces, including hard natural turf, cleats of different configuration are recommended. On softer turf or wet ground surfaces shoes with detachable studs with varying length provide the best anchoring to the ground. On snowy surfaces other configurations are necessary and rubber studs preferred. Icy surfaces again demand a different sole configuration. Traditionally, Bootmen were retained by professional clubs and oversaw the maintenance of the football boots, usually via the apprentices. One of the most famous soccer apprentices and bootboy was Rod Stewart (Bentford FC). Using their previous experiences as players with a command for the game Bootmen advised the young players on the type of boot for the weather conditions. The Boot Room a place where the game strategy was worked out and the most famous Boot Room was at Liverpool FC under the direction of Bill Shankly. Today tread patterns have changed and now incorporate curved cleats set into circular arrangements. The circular arrangement facilitates better grip in all directions and faster acceleration from the playing surfaces. Greater emphasis is given to the base area across the ball of the supporting foot, which reduces peak pressures on the soles of the feet over a long game. Cleat designs now allow the foot carrying the player's weight to pivot when the player twists or is struck by another player. This helps reduce injury form direct trauma. Further the anti-torque property offered by the circular configuration of compressible teeth (cleats) is thought by the designers to reduce rotational injuries to the knee and ankle. As the game has improved and the demands of professionalism become a primary focus the number and types of injury recorded have increased. These in no short measure have been associated with boot design (Masson & Hess, 1989). Traditional conical cleats have been cited as the main cause of such injuries and lock into the turf. It was recognised as far back as 1948 that heel cleats was responsible for foot fixation and this contributed to knee damage in soccer players. The principle functions of cleats was to offer resistance next to the ground by holding the foot stable as the body's centre of mass passed over it. One major disadvantage is if the cleat fixed too firmly to the ground then damage to the musculo-tendonous, ligamentous, cartilaginous, or osseous structures of the joints may occur. When the foot was fixed by impact or rotation of the body, these corkscrew forces passed upwards to the knee and were thought to damage the joint and its peripheral attachments. Attempts were made to design a more useful sequence of cleats for heels and forefoot but in the absence of moulded soles this meant few players were aware of them. According to Torq & Quedenfeld, there were two factors, which determined foot fixation and these are the number and the size of the cleats. The authors were able to show in a retrospective study of football injuries, players wearing cleats were less likely to suffer knee injury. (The shoes with moulded soles containing fourteen, 3/8 inch cleats. Minimum cleat tip diameter of 1/2 inch and maximum cleat length of 3/8th inch.)

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In the early days football boots weighed approx. 500 grams when dry and twice as much when wet. When manufacturers were made aware the boot was only in contact with the ball for about 10% of the game, they developed less heavy boots. Lighter footwear meant players were less exhausted and subsequently the overall speed of play increased. This made for a more enjoyable spectator sport. The soccer boot was streamlined with the ankle hugging component reduced to below the malleoli (anklebones). At first this met with concerns about ankle injuries, but this proved ill founded. The traditional soccer boot was now a slipper or soccus. Leather soles were first replaced by moulded rubber, and then injection moulded PVC before eventually nylon and plastic provailed. The new synthetic materials were waterproof, cheap to produce and substantially lighter than leather. The upper of the slipper became thinner improved treatment of leather with synthetic waterproof compounds contributed to the development of the new styles. The physical properties of kangaroo skin were recognised very early in the 19th century and most quality sports footwear was made from the marsupial's skin. This tradition has quietly continued in soccer shoes and now most quality shoes are now made from medium brown, vintage kangaroo leather. This is a name given to the process of tannage (preparing the leather) and often the leather is dyed to popular dark colours. Kangaroo hide is the toughest and most durable available and been used to produce quality sports shoes for rugby, American football, baseball, basketball, tennis and cycling shoes for over a century. It is lightweight yet very strong and many times stronger than the same thickness of cowhide. Comfortable and supple it requires no break-in period and gives the player a tight fit with optimal feel for the ball. Suitably treated Kangaroo leather is favoured because of its high performance nature. Kangaroo leather has a naturally high strength-to-weight ratio. In the 80's, Australia's CSIRO under took independent tests which confirmed these findings and determined that, when shaved to 20% of its original thickness, kangaroo leather retains between 30% and 60% of its original tensile strength, as compared to a retention rate of 1% -4% for calf and bovine leathers. In a further study by the CSIRO, it was found that kangaroo leather was at least 50% stronger than goatskin gloving leather in tear strength and puncture resistance. Microscopically the hide displays high uniform orientation of fibre bundles in parallel with the skin surface. The skin of the Kangaroo does not contain sweat glands or erector pili muscles, which would weaken the skin surface. The yellow elastic fibres (elastin) are evenly distributed throughout the skin thickness which gives the leather greater tenacity. These properties remain even when the leather is split. Tanning further enhances the leather's properties by unsticking the fibre bundles thereby allowing them to move independently. Their recent popularity may be explained by "Foot & Mouth " and Mad Cow Disease scares. Whilst recent animal rights activists have brought the use of kangaroo skin to the public's attention by condemning players like David Beckham, who endorse their use reputable firms collect kangaroo hides during the Kangaroo Harvest. Environment Australia - Wildlife Protection (an Australian Federal Government agency whose job it is to regulate and control the harvest and manufacture of all kangaroo leather) regulates this with the ruling that only non-endangered species can be used. Today's boots weigh less than 250gms eg Mercurial Vapour (NIKE) - 196 gms. Development of latex foam, meant the soccer shoe could be cushioned at no detriment to overall mass and new lightweight synthetics were stronger and harder wearing than traditional soles. According to Grau (1997) the focus of boot research from the 70s has been primarily directed at anti-pronatory control (preventing the foot from rolling over0. This was combined by using cushioning mechanisms to damped shock to the foot. Later researchers looked at torsion and pressure distribution across the foot. Initially it was wrongly assumed overloading of the weightbearing foot was the primary cause of most injuries. This research led to shoe design thought to cope with the problems but the number of reported injuries did not decrease. Moreover it seemed, in retrospect, many reported injuries arose as a result of the injury preventing solutions in boot design. Many injuries are attributed to adverse physical conditions at the interface between the soccer shoe and the playing support surface. The function of the soccer boot provides some means of attachment to the playing surface whilst encasing the foot for protection. No shoe can ever guarantee full protection against injuries, because there exists a conflict between the function of the shoe and the interests of the human body. The maintenance of static balance for a player performing an individual skill demands a significant level of torque. Excess torque or twist passes proximally through the foot pedestal to damage the ankle or knee. During contact, a static foot anchored to the ground negates its ability to dampen down (shock absorb) external forces, such as caused by contact with another player. The ankle and knee then have to absorb the energy of impact, alternatively torque within the short bones of the foot may cause them to fracture. This type of incident was illustrated by recent injury to David Beckham (Manchester United & England). Such great store is placed on individual players of his calibre that in the FIFA World Cup Korea Japan game against Sweden in the openning round, he wore a special supportive sole in his boot designed to give maximum Ironically the custom-made footwear was made by a Swede, called Jorgen Wiklander. It has also become the player's custom to wear a new pair of the now famous silver boots for each game.

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Soccer ranks as a high-risk activity when injury is concerned (Lambson, Barnhill & Higgins, 1996). Each season there appears more and more new boot design innovations yet the number of injuries continues unabated. Epidemiological studies indicate adult males are likely to suffer one injury per 167 hours of play; female soccer players are at higher risk with approximately one injury per 147 hours of play (Nilsson, Roaas, 1978; Schmidt-Olsen et al 1985; Sullivan et al 1980). Most injuries are traumatic but there is a high incidence of overuse injuries also reported. (60/40 ratio). Traumatic injuries arise during games more than practice and the risk of injury risk increases with the playing season. Early injuries tend to prevent the player from regaining and maintaining fitness although position and age has little baring on occurrence and severity of injury. (Morgan & Oberlander, 2001). The trend for females to suffer moderate injuries is one hundred percent higher than males. Major injuries for both remain the same i.e between 13 & 14%. (Morgan & Oberlander 2001; Soderman, Adolphson, Lorentzon, & Alfredson 2001). Between 68%-88% of all soccer injuries involve the lower limb (Albert, 1983; Ekstrand, Gillquist, 1983; Engstrom, Johansson, & Tornkvist, 1991; Fried, Lloyd, 1992; Nilsson, Roaas, 1978;Schmidt-Olsen et al, 1985;Schmidt-Olsen et al 1991). The knee and ankle are the most likely to be injured. (Brynhildsen, Ekstrand, & Jeppsson, 1990; Ekstrand, Gillquist, 1983; Engstrom, Johansson, & Tornkvist, 1991; Fried, Lloyd, 1992; McCarroll, Meaney, Sieber, 1984; Schmidt-Olsen et al 1991). Thought to be the most common occupational injury associated with soccer and reported by as many as 60% of soccer players is Anterior Ankle Impingement Syndrome (or Footballer's Ankle). The condition is caused by either; thickening of the tendon and joint capsule caused by stretching with the downward movement of the foot when the ball is kicked; or alternatively, osteophytic damage (bone) to the ankle joint caused by contact with the ball (Tol, Slim, van Soest, & van Dijk, 2002). Kicking is the most widely studied soccer skill (maximum velocity instep kick on a stationary ball) and it would appear modern soccer boots provide poor protection to the foot and ankle from a career in kicking the ball. The incidence and severity of knee injuries has also been significant among football players. The common factor in Anterior Cruciate Ligament (ACL) injuries is foot fixation, which has been described as leading cause of ankle injuries in sport (D'Ambrosia, 1985; Torg, 1982; Torq, Stilwell, & Rogers, 1996) The exact incidence of injury attributable to footwear in soccer remains unknown. Association between cleat design and injury rate is however reported within the literature (D¹Ambrosia, 1985; Torq JS Quedenfeld, & Landau,1974). Several specific mechanisms of injury have been described that produce ACL tears and many of these do not involve contact with another player. Instead problems appear to occur from torsional forces transmitted to the knee when the player makes a sudden directional change with a planted foot while decelerating. In the event of physical contact provided the foot can be released from the ground then injury to the ACL can be reduced. It is generally accepted high frictional forces between the foot and the playing surface result in fixation and this fixation is a least partially responsible for knee ligament injuries. Traditional soccer boots provide traction with the ground, which is critical to a player¹s performance, however it is now thought this shoe to surface traction may also contribute to injury. With no traction the player finds difficulty in maintaining balance when turning and twisting or running on wet surfaces. Too much traction permits twisting forces to move proximal on joints above the foot. Application of forces stressing the knee in a plane other than the normal joint motion results in injury if the force exceeds the elastic capabilities of any of the structures being stressed (Torg, Stilwell, & Rogers, 1996). The axial rotation at the playing surface appears to be affected by the magnitude and nature of impact. By the seventies researchers had discovered an association between cleat design and injury. Higher injuries were recorded in conventional shoes with a traditional seven-cleat pattern. The length of the cleats were " 3/4"" long; and "3/8 " in diameter.It was also found the composition of the cleat was a contributory factor. Researchers identified different patterns of injuries between shoe sizes and concluded the smaller distances between the position of studs, across the ball of the foot, might account for a higher magnitude of rotation. As a result of these finding the changes to the games rules have resulted and size restrictions and other restrictions on cleats. According to Levy, Skovron, & Agel (1990) any increase in fixation to the ground increases the risk of injury. Ekstrand & Nigg speculated as much as 60% of all non-contact soccer injuries may be due to excessive shoe surface tension. The conclusion of Bonstingi, Morehouse, & Niehel (1975) was torque developed between playing shoe and surface as a result of a force applied to the leg and an athlete depended on the type and design of the shoe¹s outer sole, the playing surface, the player weight supported, and the foot stance. The reduction of rotational force is thought by many to reduce the rate of injury to the knee. Tests on artificial turf indicate the more pliable the cleat the greater the release coefficient, although this alters with changes in surface temperature. The authors concluded release coefficients both within and among shoe models across a range of turf temperatures. Ironically on artificial turf the researchers found flat-soled basketball shoes performed better than cleated soccer boots did. Of particular concern was the introduction of a design that included round spike cleats on the interior portion of the sole with irregular cleats on the outer rim. Although this design enhanced traction, it was reported when worn by athletes it was also associated with a high incidence of serious knee injuries (Majid & Bader 1993). Some players will risk injury to enhance performance, by chosing inadequate boots and cleat designs. Most amateurs remain oblivious to the risks and there have been calls from concerned consumers for manufacturers to indicate clearly on theoir labelling the types of playing surface conditions their shoes are meant for. (Heidt et al, 1996). Further, concerns have been expressed at deceptive claims found in marketing sport shoes, according to researchers at McGill University. False notions of protection may lead to a higher rate of injury and this could include claims for improved performance. The majority of career ending injuries involve the knee, ankles and hips with osteoarthrosis (OA) a serious complication. Approximately 2% of professional players are forced to quite the game due to acute injuries. Despite being low this is higher than many other occupations. However there are a larger number of players forced to quit due to chronic injuries sustained and maintained by playing soccer. Further, Drawer, Fuller, & Waddington (2002) recently reported many retired professional players have admitted to playing games whilst unfit or receiving pain killing treatments for existing injuries with the full knowledge of their employer. Osteoarthritis in a least one of the lower extremity joints is very high and significantly greater than in the general population. Health and Safety regulations in the UK now require employers to identify hazards and risks from their work activities and to provide appropriate information and training about the risks. Employers are specifically required to provide health surveillance to employees where significant risk to their health is identified. (Drawer, Fuller, & Waddington 2001). By this token employers are now responsible for players suffering from industrial related injury which prevents them from earning a living. Published studies clearly indicate the provision of injury prevention and socio-economic services at professional soccer clubs (UK) remains inadequate and there are now calls to develop a long term strategy for managing players forced to retire through injury. The UK Industrial Injuries Advisory Council (IIAC) has so far dismissed these claims and refused to accept OA of the knee due to soccer is a boni fidi industrial injury and has refused to include it in the Industrial Injuries Scheme under Contributions and Benefits Act (1992). The IIAC are currently considering OA of the hip.

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The modern soccer shoe provides for foot flexibility during excellerated activity. Designs contain the accumulated wisdom of shoe makers which includes shoe pitch, to give a pivot action for efficient propulsion when the player accelerates forwards. The necessary stiffness beneath is matched with the need to provide a flat dorsal surface with which to control the ball. Sometimes there is a conflict which usually results in novelties being incorporated. These fads usually have a short life. Soccer boots continue to have poor protective capability but manufacturers do try to incorporate innovative designs that are attractive to consumers as well as including design safety features determined by the rules of the game. However the fashion half-life of a sport shoe today is very short and products are as likely to incorporate fads rather than functional components. The three most notable innovations in recent soccer boot design have an Australian flavour, a country not always associated with the world favourite game. Most manufacturers now incorporate Rubberised Kangaroo Technology into their top of the range boots. The soft, yet hardwearing leather uppers are reported as giving the player added grip and ball control. Players put a lot in store concerning being able to feel the ball through the upper of the boot and soccer boots that fit snugly are preferred. Other leather are available and many brand leaders now incorporate synthetics uppers as a viable ulterantive to discerning vegans. The tradition of incorporating kangaroo skins for sports shoes however goes right back to Victorian Times when quality croquet and cricket boots were made from the Antipodean hide. Several years ago Asics developed an innovative cleat designed to help prevent rotational collateral damage to the knee, reported in Australian Rules Footie players. The prototype shoes soon became popular with other football codes including Australian soccer players. The Asics system allowed optimal traction without hindering the player from running freely on hard or artificial surfaces. Similar cleat patterns are now incorporated within contemporary boot design. Australian Craig Johnson (formerly Liverpool FC and Scotland) was convinced by changing the surface contour of the soccer boot, greater ball control would follow. He experimented for many years until his prototype Predator was eventually accepted by Adidas, and now the Adidas Predator TM is in its sixth generation.

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The Warp Soccer boot incorporates a pattern of cleats called the Warp MITRE SPEEDSTUD system. According to the manufacturers this stud configuration improves players drive and acceleration by as much as 40% when compared to traditional round studs. The company have supplied soccer boots for many years and produce a wide range of boots to suit a variety playing surfaces both natural and synthetic.

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To be a top class goal scorer, the player needs not only to be able to score when the opportunity presents but even when there is only half a chance. Scoring from the slenderest opportunity places an exclusive band of goalscorers far above the average striker. On a simple goal tally it is obvious more goals are scored in the modern game than was the case in early times. How much of this relates to improved soccer boots remains unknown. Players are however, by nature, very superstitious and will go to extraordinary lengths to maintain their run of luck. Most of their actions defy common logic and some so bazaar as to be noted here. Whilst most admit to being superstitious and doing silly things, like soaking themselves and their new boots in a bath before allowing boots to dry around their feet, many are as quick as to dismiss these beliefs. When the cumulation of coaching, training, skill development and fitness are complete all that is required is for the player, is to go out and play. Or so you might think. The surreptitious nature of the game and likelihood of suffering an injury combined with the abject fear of public disgrace particularly when seen by 37 million people puts intolerable pressures on the players. According to Morris (1981) these factors contribute to why soccer players are so superstitious. They are not alone in the sporting fraternity. The power of superstition is all in the mind and for some players the magic rituals take on astonishing intensity. In the main team mates respect each other's rituals and all avoid tempting fate. Ritualistic behaviour starts days before the game. Many well known players will only wear certain shoes and socks, and like a young bride, place a sixpence (lucky coin) in their shoes. Some personally polish their playing boots in preparation before the match. This menial task is usually reserved to apprentice players or bootboys. Alcohol, usually spirits, plays a role, and Desmond Morris, the anthropologist described one player who insisted on dosing the tips of his boots, one with whisky and the other water. Players will be careful to travel to the stadium observing all taboos as a means of not tempting fate. The most intense time for ritualism is in the changing rooms. Rigidly observed procedures involve those connected with changing clothes. Lucky shoes, socks, and even laces all form part of the rituals, religiously followed by those seeking the good fortunes of fate. The manner the clothing is put on often become ritualistic. Some players are known to put on socks and boots and nothing else well before the game. They sit quietly psyching themselves up to a peak performance. This might involve a nip of whisky or their favourite tipple to further concentrate their mind. Some players insist on eating and Billy Bremner (former captain of Leeds United and Scotland) was famous for eating a plateful of baked beans before every game. Putting on the left sock first before the right, or the right boot before the left. Lacing boots can become a ritual with players lacing and unlacing their boots multiple times before the game. Morris reported the clothing of others could also become a focus to the superstitious. For example some players needed to see their coach wear socks of their lucky colour before they would take to the field. This fetishism extends to the shoes worn by the coach and the author described a ceremoniously fastened of the coach's shoe by one of the players as pre match necessity before the team would leave the dressing rooms. Some players insist on entering the changing rooms in a particular way most of, which involves walking through the boot room. Players will carry lucky charms including a rabbit's foot or lucky heather heather. The absence of pockets in playing kits and restrictions on wearing jewellery for safety mean the talisman are slipped into the shoe, or in the case of goal keeper such paraphilia are tossed into the back of the goal. Players are ritualistic even in the tunnel leading to the pitch. Some players will head or kick the ball a certain number of times or bounce it off the wall before running onto the field. Once on the pitch another set of ritual behaviour might take place. Players will take their boots off and put them back on again. Many insist in relacing the boots and some even kiss their boots for luck. Players will roll the chewing gum they have been chewing into a ball and attempt to kick the ball. A successful contact means a good game but when the player misses then bad luck will follow. Why so many superstitions involve boots remains unclear but such behaviour as preferring the right or left has been known since antiquity.In Roman and Greek times the left side was considered lucky with one exception and that was when entering a home. Only the right foot could cross the threshold if good luck was to prevail. In rich domiciles there were servants whose sole function (excuse the pun) was to direct all visitors to use their right foot first. They were called footmen and position is still with us today. By the Middle Ages the left side was more associated with bad luck. The origins of "By the left quick march" for example refer to a clear indication no mercy will be extended to the enemy. Soccer players may be extending the same charity to their opponents. For most people left sides are weaker. This is partly explained by neonatal compression of the left leg against the mother's spine in the womb. Attendance to the right foot first may be to favour the stronger side. This would be reversed in the case of left-footed players. One other reason to explain the boot ritual may be the misfortune awaiting those who place their right foot in a left shoe. History records this happened to Augustus Caesar.

"Augustus having an oversight
Put on his left shoe for his right
Had like to have been slain that day
By soldiers mutinying for pay."

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The author would like to acknowledge the sources of pictures which came from a variety of sources, including:
Kreider R 1996 A soccer century: A chronicle of West Australian soccer from 1896-1996 Perth: Sportswest Media
Morris D 1981 The soccer tribe London: Jonathan Cape, London 193-194.
Shaoul M & Williamson T 2000 Forever England: A history of the national side Stroud: Tempus Publishing Ltd.

Cameron Kippen is a shoe historian and lecturer in Podology. He has no affliiative with any soccer organisation, nor associated with footwear manufacturers or retailers. The information on this webpage has been collected and reported in good faith.

The author has no association with shoe manufacturers or retailers. The information presented here has been researched and collated using, in good faith and wherever possible, refereed materials. Where triangulation was not possible, information was taken at face value and unless stated otherwise represents the opinions of the author and not Curtin University of Technology.

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